Integrating Variable Renewables into the Electric Grid: An Evaluation of Challenges and Potential Solutions

............................................................................................................................ vii Acknowledgements ............................................................................................................ ix Table of Contents ................................................................................................................ x List of Figures ................................................................................................................... xii List of Tables .................................................................................................................... xv 1. Introduction ................................................................................................................. 1 2. The Costs of Solar and Wind Power Variability for Reducing CO2 Emissions .......... 4 2.1 Introduction ............................................................................................................ 4 2.2 Methods and Data .................................................................................................. 6 2.2.1 Data ................................................................................................................ 6 2.2.2 Power Spectral Analysis ................................................................................ 8 2.2.3 Cost of Variability .......................................................................................... 9 2.2.4 Cost of Variability and Emissions Displacement ........................................ 12 2.3 Results .................................................................................................................. 14 2.3.1 Power Spectral Analysis .............................................................................. 14 2.3.2 Cost of Variability of Solar Thermal, PV, and Wind .................................. 15 2.3.3 Cost of Variability and CO2 Displacement .................................................. 17 2.3.4 Policy Implications and Discussion ............................................................. 18 2.4 Appendix 2A: Forecasts ....................................................................................... 20 2.5 Appendix 2B: Seasonality of the Cost of Variability ......................................... 23 2.6 Appendix 2C: Effect of Period Between Power Measurements on Cost of Variability ...................................................................................................................... 23 2.7 Appendix 2D: Effect of Intra-hourly Scheduling on Cost of Variability ........... 24 2.8 Appendix 2E: Description of Solar Technologies .............................................. 24 2.9 Appendix 2F: Hourly Cost of Variability for Solar Thermal and Wind ............. 24 3. Distribution Grid Reconfiguration Reduces Power Losses and Helps Integrate Renewables ....................................................................................................................... 26 3.1 Introduction .......................................................................................................... 26 3.1.1 Summary of Results ..................................................................................... 28 3.1.2 Overview of Paper ....................................................................................... 29 3.2 Methods ................................................................................................................ 29 3.2.1 Data .............................................................................................................. 29